Dialogue and Universalism

3/2024

WERNER KRIEGLSTEIN

AUGUST 26, 2024 — OCTOBER 31, 1941

REMEMBERING WERNER KRIEGLSTEIN

FRAGMENTS OF A LEGACY

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434336

In the early 1990s, the International Society for Universal Dialogue held its World Congress at Brock University in St. Catherine’s, Canada. I had met Werner Krieglstein earlier at ISUD Congresses in Warsaw and Berlin but did not know him well. This all changed on a summer evening as Werner performed for our Society a one-man show of Franz Kafka’s “Report to an Academy.” The event was memorable. I still possess a small souvenir of the occasion; a paper flyer announcing what seemed to be a spontaneous theatrical performance.

The paper flyer, pasted on a wall of notices, featured a hand-drawn sketch of Werner as he portrayed Red Peter describing his former life as an ape to an academic conference. On stage, Red Peter narrates his account of being shot and captured on the African Gold Coast and then shipped to Europe by his captors. While confined to a small cage on board the ship to Europe, Red Peter realizes that for the first time in his life, there was “no way out.”

He recounts slowly acquiring the skills to entertain his captors, first by smoking tobacco and drinking alcohol while eventually learning to imitate the speech and mannerisms of humans. Red Peter’s captors soon realized that this ape was “trainable.” Before our eyes, Red Peter transforms from a wild animal worthy only of being caged, into a principled and well-spoken human. For the audience, it was a powerful experience.

Soon after arriving in Europe, Red Peter realized that his likely new home in the zoological garden could not be “a way out” but only a larger cage. Red Peter imagined that another alternative might work better: performing on the stages of the great music halls of Europe while “dazzling crowds with his sensational abilities.” I read Kafka’s short story after returning home and was struck by the differences between his text and Werner’s performance. Although the words were the same, Werner’s report featured an emotional element of rising intensity that I did not find in Kafka’s story.

Werner’s portrayal of Red Peter, leading us step by step through Red Peter’s transformation, seemed to evoke some themes discussed in the reports given by our Congress participants. We discussed the possibility of a global transformation from the current state and manner of being human to a new condition of human existence, one that could be cultivated by shared philosophical dialogue among ever more inclusive communities. We imagined that such dialogue could lead to a more humane and just World.

Participants in our Academy shared their reports on how their research could illuminate and enrich a path towards the possibilities of a transformation of humankind. My current recollection of this tempts me to suggest that the participants in our Academy sought to impress, if not dazzle, their audiences with reports of our own modest abilities to help find “a way out” of our present modes of confinement.

Werner’s performance, subtly revealing continuities between Red Peter’s transformation and our own Society’s philosophical goals, did not go unnoticed by this audience. On that summer evening, Werner managed to artistically and philosophically capture an important fragment of what we, as members of our Academy, were trying to articulate.

Like all good philosophical storytelling, Red Peter reveals something important while hinting of something more. Red Peter ends his account by acknowledging that he is pleased with his transformation. He had found “a way out.” And yet, he also suggests that his transformation from beast to man was also a loss of something undefined, poorly remembered, and perhaps equally important. Red Peter leaves us with work still to be done.

Final Note

Those who knew Werner Krieglstein will agree that his artistic and philosophical work was filled with a quiet and understated power, a power balanced by his personal gentleness and compassion. Many lives have been enriched by Werner. We will miss him.

Charles Brown

Distinguished Professor of Philosophy

Emporia State University, USA

EDITORIAL

VARIA

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434337

   Issue 3-2024 of Dialogue and Universalism is not monothematic. Unlike the vast majority of issues of Dialogue and Universalism throughout the history of the journal, which are devoted to specific problems, this one contains philosophical studies thematically diversified—not limited by specific problems, styles of philosophizing, nor philosophical traditions. Publishing some issues of Dialogue and Universalism as non-monothematic (Varia) has recently become a principle in the journal’s publishing policy.

   The first obvious advantage of publishing issues Varia is that it offers authors complete freedom in choosing the problems to be considered, enabling them to present their own directions of research, ideas and concepts, without imposing anything on them.

   The next is to provide, more or less clearly, partial images of contemporary philosophy. Issues Varia provide partial insights—as it happens in many philosophical journals around the world—into the specifics of contemporary philosophizing. This is a permanent “added value” of collections of non- monothematic works, not a rarity. However, it is worth recalling it because of its importance. These insights are admittedly extremely modest and accidental contributions, but nevertheless they show—from their narrow perspectives—the richness of contemporary philosophy, its prevailing trends as well as its diversification. In Dialogue and Universalism this diversity is especially clearly visible because the authors—which is a satisfaction for us, even a source of pride—come from different continents, cultures and various academic communities.

   Today’s philosophy is not a continuation or a simple, linear development of centuries-old philosophical tradition. It is less unified than old philosophy, and at the same time, despite the secession from it to science some fields, e.g. psychology and sociology, over 100 years ago, the universe of its problems is broader than it was in previous centuries. This universe is growing, among other things, through the successive involvement of philosophy in current affairs of the human world, including issues that are completely new or are regarded as such (e.g. AI, post-truth, new forms of racism, LGBT, ecology). However, these studies are often situated on the peripheries of philosophy, only developing theoretical foundations for their investigations. This current phase of transforming new problems into philosophy, i.e. the processes of making them philosophical, cause in some situations that philosophy is being crumbled from the inside—what is not yet philosophical flows into it, which is only becoming so step by step. Of lesser importance in philosophy is the lack of unification— both in terms of the subject matter and methods of philosophical discourse—that is, the lack of capturing new problems in a single all-embracing philosophical system.

   The addressing of today’s philosophy to current issues that concern humanity and especially to newly emerging problems has two opposing sides. On the one hand, this philosophy responds to the state of the human world, more specifically, the state of individual man, societies and all of humanity, the state of their natural and social habitat, and tries to capture from the incredible cacophony of problems of this world the basis of what is taking place before our eyes, and also—in ambitious normative undertakings—to indicate means to counteract its destruction. It tries, in other words, to capture its deepest sense by offering intellectual tools to explain the world. Thus, by joining in the struggle with the present world, in its case, with the intellectual struggle, at the level of theory, it shows how much it is not—contrary to the opinions of its critics—an anachronistic field, isolated from the human world, and therefore, again in the opinion of the critics, useless, unnecessary, belonging to the history of human activities. On the other hand, at this stage of pioneering delving into the present world, philosophy sometimes diagnoses this world without the distance proper to it, and sometimes without an appropriately clear theoretical (conceptual and methodological) ground, which is only being sought. Philosophy sometimes accepts ready-made points of view, opinions and assessments from outside philosophy, without exploring them and with too superficial reflection on them. Sometimes it too uncritically follows the opinions of scholars (worse still, statements that are beyond the competence of scholars, are their worldview reflections), and even non-scientific, loud and fashionable, opinion-forming circles. In this way, philosophy loses its distance and objectivity and departs from the canons of the most liberally understood philosophicality—it turns into quasi-philosophy or pseudo-philosophy. On the other hand, philosophy, which does not produce synthetic knowledge by itself, in isolation, and therefore cannot fence itself off, is condemned, by its very nature, to the externality of its foundations. This gives rise to a dilemma, the proper resolution of which is always a necessary beginning of all philosophizing. In any case, it must be remembered that in this ambivalent situation of philosophy, its autonomy—in the clash with the influx of external knowledge, ideas, opinions and styles of thinking—is a constantly threatened attribute. It must be protected in order to avoid philosophy dissolving into intellectual, non-specific reflection, with ad hoc formed goals and methods of inquiry. The point here is not at all to stop the development of philosophy and cut it off from even temporarily important, transient problems of the human world, but to protect its unique status and its identity, which is constant only in its deepest essential layer, and changeable in more superficial layers in the face of the constant flow and reconstruction of philosophical concepts.

   The texts presented in this issue of Dialogue and Universalism consider the problems of the human world, and thus are located in the philosophy that dominates today, that is, practical philosophy, as understood by Aristotle. Theoretical philosophy (again as understood by Aristotle), which is opposed to practical philosophy and at the same time complementary to it, is in retreat, after a long eradication of metaphysics and in the face of the gradual disappearance of the philosophy of knowledge (its place is taken by empirical cognitive sciences).

Małgorzata Czarnocka

full professor of philosophy

Dialogue and Universalism editor-in-chief

ABSTRACT

Aliasghar Ahmadi

FARABI AND TABATABAEI: OPPONENTS OF THE SHIITE ETHICAL PRINCIPLE

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434346

   Islamic theologians have held differing views on ethics. Ash’aris believe that the good-ness and badness of actions are solely determined by divine law, while the ʿAdlīyeh (including Mu’tazilis and Shi’ites) assert that these qualities are intrinsic or rational. This means that ʿAdlīyeh believes that even in the absence of religion, humans can distinguish between goodness and badness and they are independent to religions. This belief is so prevalent in Shi’ites texts that students of theology often conclude that anyone who does not believe in the intrinsic goodness and badness of actions (IGBA) is not in Shi’ites boundary. However, this repetitive assertion has obscured dissenting opinions within Shi’ites. For instance, when Morteza Motahhari (an Islamic contemporary philosopher and a student of Tabatabaei), discovered that his teacher did not believe in the IGBA, he reconsidered his mentorship and Motahhari critics his teacher. This article, in addition to examining Tabatabaei’s views, traces their roots to Farabi’s philosophy. Given that both were Muslim philosophers and Farabi was likely a Shi’ite, identifying this connection can influence contemporary Shi’ite philosophers and create a third way in theorizing Shi’ite ethics. This article employs a persuasive paradigm, a qualitative approach, content analysis method, and library research collecting data method.

Keywords: Intrinsic goodness and badness (IGBA); conventional ethics; Tabatabaei; Farabi; Shiite ethical principle.

Affiliation: University of Religions and Denominations, Qom, Iran; Researcher at Pooyafekr Research Group, Tehran, Iran.

E-mail: aa.ahmadi@urd.ac.ir

Ramezan Mhadavi Azadboni

RELIGION AND ITS EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION IN THE CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL VILLAGE.

THE ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434338

   The quality of intersubjective communication in today’s world, which is different from the past world, due to the development of communication tools and technology is so wide and deep that spatial distances have become almost unaffected. Then the question arises if we can talk about the educational function of religion in such a world. The general explanation of this function is that the religious educational system realizes educational goals by keeping people away from particular conditions and places which are against the goals of education. In today’s world, where it has become difficult, in fact almost impossible to keep people away from certain situations and places, how can religion have an educational function. Religious educators, traditionally, attempted to fulfill educational goals by imposing certain conditions and principles. The purpose of this article is to examine this problem from the Islamic perspective. The author tries to display why in the contemporary global village there is no conflict between the educational function of religion and the structure of intersubjective communication.

Keywords: Religion, human being, educational function, global village.

Affiliation: University of Mazandaran, Iran

E-mail: r.mahdavi@umz.ac.ir

Ronald Olufemi Badru

XENOPHOBIA AS AFRO-PHOBIA:

TOWARDS A POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY OF CHANGE TO AFRO-PHILIA

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434343

   As at present, a fundamental problem negating intensive and extensive integration of self–other relations in Africa, bothering the African mind, is xenophobia: the fear and, by extension, revulsion against any human (or non-human) subject of foreign origin. What is usually understood as xenophobia in Africa is actually Afro-phobia: Africans from within reject other Africans from without, while non-Africans are largely not so treated. This reasoning contextually motivates the phrase, xenophobia as Afro-phobia. Confronting the problem and its outcomes, much scholarship has dominantly come from social sciences, confirming that that there could only be little non-social scientific voice to the discussion. Given this gap, this work is philosophical. The claim is that, in the present world where continental (perhaps, inclusive of diasporic) Africans should committedly reinvent their largely common ontology (idea of African being) and cosmology (African worldviews), unitedly confronting continental and non-continental challenges, xenophobia as Afro-phobia regrettably expresses a morally unjustifiable divergence rather than cooperative convergence. Addressing the problem, this work critically interrogates xenophobia as Afro-phobia, before foregrounding a political philosophy of change, ultimately promoting Afro-philia, rather than xenophobia as Afro-phobia, in the African person. Successfully developing this political philosophy of change, its epistemology, ethics, metaphysics, and logic must be intelligible to Africans and its ultimate practical realization. These constitute the present goals.

Keywords: Africa, Afro-philia, Afro-phobia, philosophy, politics, xenophobia.

Affiliation: University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

Emails: badru.ronald@lcu.edu.ng; femmydamak@gmail.com; femmydscholar@gmail.com

Minakshi Das

VIRTUALISATION AND ITS IMPACT ON THE LIFEWORLD. A STUDY FROM THE HUSSERLIAN PERSPECTIVE

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434348

   The virtual world has become an important form of our life. While technology is making the life easier at the same time it is taking away the life from us. Here, the question arises, is this an alternate for good or for worse? This study will investigate the concept of virtual reality by exploring the Husserlian probe for imagination. Furthermore, the study attempts to analyse the virtualization of the real world and how the shift from the real to virtual has affected the life of human being. Moreover, the review will target to investigate the meaning of the lifeworld. In the end the study attempts to explore how by following Husserlian phenomenology that saves space for value one could attain a meaningful life.

Keywords: Lifeworld, phenomenology, virtualization, technology, value.

Affiliation: Handique Girls’ College, Guwahati 781001, India

E-mail: minakshi.iitg@gmail.com

Tingting Dong, Changlong Sun

SINICIZATION OF MARXISM AS THE BASIS OF POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICAL DISCOURSE OF MODERN CHINA (PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA). INTEGRATION INTO SOCIAL POLICY

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434342

   The study compares the changes in the theory of Marxism that took place in Europe (in the form of neo-Marxism and its movements, in particular the Frankfurt School) and the Sinicized version of Marxism. The study also examines how Sinicized Marxism was reflected in the political discourse and political philosophy of modern China (People’s Republic of China) and is reflected in social policy in the country. Studying the influence of socio-economic changes and the history of the people on ideological changes allows us to identify several principles of Sinicized Marxism, which on an ongoing basis determine social policy and foreign relations. This is, first, etatism and the dominance of state interests over private ones, which limits human rights and national self-determination, but preserves the integrity and stability of the state, which protects the interests of the people.

Keywords: China policy; Maoism; pragmatism; revolution; social theories.

Affiliation:

Tingting Dong — Department of Philosophy, National Technical University “Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute,” Kharkiv, 61002 Ukraine

E-mail: 331418909@qq.com

Changlong Sun — Department of Philosophy, National Technical University “Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute,” Kharkiv, 61002 Ukraine

Raghunath Ghosh

THE CONCEPT OF FREEDOM IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434340

   The paper deals with the concepts of determinism and freedom as found in the philosophy of the Indian origin. Actually, there is a long controversy regarding these concepts among different schools of philosophy. The problem has been dealt with and solved by Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan. My effort is to justify Radhakrishnan’s position with some favourable arguments from the Indian standpoint. As per an observation of Radhakrish-nan it is concluded that both the divine power and human effort are essential for any type of success in our life. If these two factors remain in a cooperative stage, there is neither pure determinism nor pure human effort, but the amalgamation of both. Our karmas in the past can be brough into future or can be minimized if our will-force is in the full swing. If we can invest our energy or power, we can change the map of karma, even the divine interference. This has been shown with help of various arguments.

Keywords: freedom, determinism, Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, Indian philosophical tradition.

Affiliation: University of North Bengal, Dist. Darjeeling-734013, W.B., India.

E-mail: ghoshraghunath3@gmail.com

Liron Hoch

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LEADERSHIP: MAIMONIDES, SPINOZA, AND GREENLEAF THROUGH THE POPPERIAN LENS

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434341

   This study investigates three distinct leadership paradigms—Maimonides’s flexible leadership (MFL), Spinoza’s affective leadership (SAL), and Greenleaf’s servant leadership (SL)—within the philosophical framework of Karl Popper. Through an interdisciplinary approach, it uncovers the intricate interplay between these styles and foundational philosophical principles, particularly those of Socratic and Platonic origins. Emphasizing the socio-cultural contexts that shape each style, the analysis discerns how MFL leans towards Platonic hierarchy, while SAL and SL resonate more with Socratic ideals of dialogue and trust. Beyond theoretical exploration, the article offers practical insights tailored for management organizations, empowering them to enhance leadership effectiveness, navigate ethical dilemmas, and align with core values. Ultimately, this research aims to equip organizations with the tools needed to thrive in diverse contexts and navigate the evolving landscape of leadership dynamics.

Keywords: Leadership styles, hierarchy, relationships, Karl Popper, Socratic and Platonic philosophies, management philosophy.

Affiliation: Department of Interdisciplinary Studies, Zefat Academic College, Zefat, Jerusalem St, Israel, 972.

Email: lironhoch@hotmail.com; lironhoch5@gmail.com

Mahmoud Nazari

THE MEANING OF LIFE FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434339

   The question of the meaning of life is one of the fundamental issues that humanity was asking since the beginning of its creation. Among various approaches to addressing the issue of meaning of existence, one of the primary methods is the philosophical approach. Meanwhile, Islamic philosophy, when confronted with the question of the meaning of life, establishes its foundation upon the understanding of human capacities and capabilities. It asserts that the answer to the question of the origin of life can only be achieved through recognizing human nature, which with its faculty of intellect, tends to discover truth and the meaning of life. Islamic philosophy does not view human life as separate from the system of the universe. Instead, it seeks to find the meaning of life within this framework and a specific context. The significance, value, and credibility of human life are based on its interpretation of the universe and its connection to the ultimate purpose. Therefore, meaningfulness is contingent upon the humans’ relationship with the ultimate purpose of the universe. In this article, I examine the perspective of Islamic philosophy on the meaning of life based on its definition of the human being and the universe.

Keywords: Islamic philosophy, meaning of life, purposefulness, ultimate happiness.

Affiliation: Department of study of Religion, University of Religions and Denominations, Qom, Iran

E-mail: mahmoud.nazari83@gmail.com

Babatunde Olatunji Oni

THE CHALLENGE OF MORAL DEVALUATION IN AFRICA: A PHILOSOPHCAL PERSPECTIVE

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434344

   This paper delves into the complex phenomenon of moral devaluation in the African context, seeking to unravel its underlying causes and implications for society. Africa, with its rich cultural diversity and historical legacies, presents a unique backdrop for exploring the dynamics of moral values. It is however noted that moral devaluation refers to the erosion or decline of ethical standards and values within a society, and which has become increasingly pertinent in the African context. This paper critically examines the multifaceted factors contributing to this phenomenon, including socio-economic disparities, political instability, and the influence of globalization. The paper also scrutinizes through argumentative and analytic methods of philosophical inquiry, the role of traditional belief systems, colonial legacies, and contemporary challenges in shaping moral values. Moreover, this inquiry assesses the profound consequences of moral devaluation on African societies, such as the breakdown of social cohesion, rising crime rates, and diminished trust in institutions. It also highlights the potential impact on the continent’s development prospects, given the pivotal role of ethics in economic and political progress. Drawing from a range of philosophical perspectives, the African philosophical thought to Western ethical theories, this paper aims at contributing to a deeper understanding of the philosophical issues surrounding moral devaluation while offering insights on policies and interventions that aims at rejuvenating moral values and fostering ethical resilience within African societies. Ultimately, the paper underscores the urgency of addressing moral devaluation as an essential component of Africa’s ongoing quest for social and moral renewal.

Keywords: Africa, moral devaluation, ethics, culture, globalization

Affiliation: Department of Philosophy, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. ORCiD ID: 0009-0009-5790-8830

E-mail: booni24@lautech.edu.ng

Masoumeh RajabNezhadian, Ghorbanali Karimzadeh Gharamaleki, Ali Babaei

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE PROBLEM OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MIND AND BODY IN THE THOUGHTS OF DESCARTES AND MULLA SADRA

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434347

   Most philosophers have regarded humans as a psychosomatic reality, considering the individual human being as a unity composed of two distinct dimensions: immaterial and material, which are interrelated. However, the manner in which these two distinct substances relate to each other has leaded humanity to numerous challenges. Hence, Descartes and Mulla Sadra, have attempted to elucidate the relationship between the mind and body. Therefore, comparing thoughts of Mulla Sadra and Descartes regarding the issue of the mind and body, along with the proposed solutions by these two philosophers, can address numerous human inquiries regarding the dual constituents forming the reality of human existence. This article, using a descriptive-analytical method, comes to conclusion that Descartes considered the pineal gland as the primary agent of the interaction between the mind and body, whereas Mulla Sadra, based on the theory of material creation and substantial motion of the mind, deemed the interaction between the mind and body feasible.

Keywords: Mind, body, Descartes, Mulla Sadra, dualism.

Affiliation:

Masoumeh RajabNezhadian — Department of Philosophy and Theology, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran (corresponding author)

E-mail: mrajabnezhadian@gmail.com

Ghorbanali Karimzadeh Gharamaleki — PhD, Department of Philosophy and Theology, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran

Email: g.karimzadeh@tabrizu.ac.ir

Ali Babaei — PhD, Department of Philosophy and Theology, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran

E-mail: ali.babaei@tabrizu.ac.ir

Elena Tashlinskaya

HOMO PROJECTUS

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434349

   The article considers the key characteristics of a designing person. In particular, the author describes projective consciousness and the ability to creatively change the world and change oneself. To do this, the author reevaluates the content of the concept of the project; explores the functions of projective thinking and reflection; refers to the study of the change in time and space of a person living in a constant situation of creating a project. Modern social space and time are strongly turning towards social design, which imposes new requirements on a person—to be not just intellectually developed and pragmatic, but also artistically organized. As a result, a new way of existence and finding oneself is emerging—this is a homo projectus, a socially adaptive, enterprising, creative person, who is in a permanent state of changing reality and searching for ways of self-change.

Keywords: Project, person designing, functions of thinking and reflection, social design, innovation, creative activity.

Affiliation: Ulyanovsk State Technical University, 432027, Severnyi Venetz str., 32, Ulyanovsk, Russia.

E-mail: elesha73@mail.ru

Zhanna Vavilova, John Broadbent

WHEN COLOR IS DARK.
A SEMIOTIC STUDY ON CHROMATOLOGY

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434350

   As far as visual semiotics is concerned, color is an element of the image representing a fact of reality. However, as the mechanisms by which colors are perceived vary widely between and even within species, to say nothing of machines, this may cause misunderstanding in communication. This interdisciplinary research aims at conveying a comprehensive picture of the mechanisms that operate behind color perception and interpretation, based on data of biosemiotics and robosemiotics, i.e. taking into account different perspectives on conveying meaning between living systems, as well as machines. The paper also seeks to raise awareness of the differing conventions of the meaning of colors in human cultures. Findings from all these fields are combined and compared to make a plausible judgement about color as an instrument of deception; the authors analyze situations where interpretations of color can lead to deception either through error or as a consequence of deliberate action.

Keywords: color, meaning, interpretation, communication, semiotics, visuality, image, Umwelt

Affiliation:

Zhanna Vavilova — Department of Philosophy and Media, Kazan State Power Engineering University.

Email: zhannavavilova@mail.ru

John T. Broadbent — UK-based Morrisby Student Adviser, Consultant to PEAR Academy, Adelaide, Australia.

E-mail: johntaylorbrdbnt@hotmail.com

Irina Zhurbina

AUTONOMIZATION OF THE POLITICAL WITHIN THE BOUNDARIES OF LEGAL REALITY

https://doi.org/10.5840/du202434345

   This paper explores ways of defining the political within the framework of legal reality. The relevance of the research topic is due to modern processes of economic globalization, which contribute to the establishment of a neoliberal type of state that transforms the state of exception, turning the exceptional measure into a permanent management technology. Economic globalization raises anew the question of the specificity of the political. It is shown that the dual nature of the state of exception establishes two different ways of interpreting the political. In the first version, the political is defined through the legal boundary, where it relates to the state of full power of the sovereign and/or dictator (Schmitt). In the second version, the political is defined through the boundary indicating the state of exhaustion of legal competence, which corresponds to the situation of a lack of legal rights of homo sacer (Agamben).

Keywords: state of exception, the political, absolute subject, sovereign, dictator, homo sacer, bare life.

Affiliation: Department of History, Theory and Practice of Social Communications, Udmurt State University, Izhevsk, Russian Federation.

E-mail: soloveyiv1@mail.ru